Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Author: Jeffrey P. Staab, MD, MS
Editorial changes - 2010-01-20
Author information and module status
Prevention
Screening
Diagnosis
Consultation for Diagnosis
Hospitalization
Non-drug Therapy
Drug Therapy
Patient Education
Consultation for Management
Follow-up
Tables
References
Glossary
What's New
Patient Information
Additional Resources
Tools
References
1. 3Foa EB, Davidson JRT, Frances A. The expert consensus guideline series: treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 1999;60(Suppl 16):60-6.
2. 1Brady KT, Killeen TK, Brewerton T, Lucerini S. Comorbidity of psychiatric disorders and posttraumatic stress disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 2000;61 Suppl 7:22-32. (PMID: 10795606)
3. 1Hidalgo RB, Davidson JR. Posttraumatic stress disorder: epidemiology and health-related considerations. J Clin Psychiatry. 2000;61 Suppl 7:5-13. (PMID: 10795604)
4. 1Gelpin E, Bonne O, Peri T, Brandes D, Shalev AY. Treatment of recent trauma survivors with benzodiazepines: a prospective study. J Clin Psychiatry. 1996;57:390-4. (PMID: 9746445)
5. 1Cuijpers P, Van Straten A, Smit F. Preventing the incidence of new cases of mental disorders: a meta-analytic review. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2005;193:119-25. (PMID: 15684914)
6. 3National Institute of Mental Health (2002). Mental Health and Mass Violence: Evidence-Based Early Psychological Intervention for Victims/Survivors of Mass Violence. A Workshop to Reach Consensus on Best Practices. NIH Publication No. 02-5138. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. [Full Text]
7. 1Michaels AJ, Michaels CE, Moon CH, Smith JS, Zimmerman MA, Taheri PA, et al. Posttraumatic stress disorder after injury: impact on general health outcome and early risk assessment. J Trauma. 1999;47:460-6; discussion 466-7. (PMID: 10498298)
8. 1Samson AY, Bensen S, Beck A, Price D, Nimmer C. Posttraumatic stress disorder in primary care. J Fam Pract. 1999;48:222-7. (PMID: 10086767)
9. 1Shalev AY, Freedman S, Peri T, Brandes D, Sahar T, Orr SP, et al. Prospective study of posttraumatic stress disorder and depression following trauma. Am J Psychiatry. 1998;155:630-7. (PMID: 9585714)
10. 1Breslau N, Kessler RC, Chilcoat HD, Schultz LR, Davis GC, Andreski P. Trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder in the community: the 1996 Detroit Area Survey of Trauma. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1998;55:626-32. (PMID: 9672053)
11. 1Stein MB, McQuaid JR, Pedrelli P, Lenox R, McCahill ME. Posttraumatic stress disorder in the primary care medical setting. Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 2000;22:261-9. (PMID: 10936633)
12. 1Cook JM, Elhai JD, Arean PA. Psychometric properties of the PTSD Checklist with older primary care patients. J Trauma Stress. 2005;18:371-6. (PMID: 16281234)
13. 2Bridges KW, Goldberg DP. Somatic presentation of DSM III psychiatric disorders in primary care. J Psychosom Res. 1985;29:563-9. (PMID: 4087223)
14. 3American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 4th ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 1994.
15. 2Mason J, Southwick S, Yehuda R, Wang S, Riney S, Bremner D, et al. Elevation of serum free triiodothyronine, total triiodothyronine, thyroxine-binding globulin, and total thyroxine levels in combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1994;51:629-41. (PMID: 8042912)
16. 2Wang S, Mason J. Elevations of serum T3 levels and their association with symptoms in World War II veterans with combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder: replication of findings in Vietnam combat veterans. Psychosom Med. 1999;61:131-8. (PMID: 10204962)
17. 1Shalev AY. Measuring outcome in posttraumatic stress disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 2000;61 Suppl 5:33-9; discussion 40-2. (PMID: 10761677)
18. 1Foa EB. Psychosocial treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 2000;61 Suppl 5:43-8; discussion 49-51. (PMID: 10761678)
19. 1Norton PJ, Price EC. A meta-analytic review of adult cognitive-behavioral treatment outcome across the anxiety disorders. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2007;195:521-31. (PMID: 17568301)
20. 1Resnick PA, Nishith P, Weaver TL, Astin MC, Feuer CA. A comparison of cognitive-processing therapy with prolonged exposure and a waiting condition for the treatment of chronic posttraumatic stress disorder in female rape victims. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2002;70:867-79. (PMID: 12182270)
21. 1McDonagh A, Friedman M, McHugo G, Ford J, Sengupta A, Mueser K, et al. Randomized trial of cognitive-behavioral therapy for chronic posttraumatic stress disorder in adult female survivors of childhood sexual abuse. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2005;73:515-24. (PMID: 15982149)
22. 2Hembree EA, Foa EB, Dorfan NM, Street GP, Kowalski J, Tu X. Do patients drop out prematurely from exposure therapy for PTSD? J Trauma Stress. 2003;16:555-62. (PMID: 14690352)
23. 1Difede J, Cukor J, Jayasinghe N, Patt I, Jedel S, Spielman L, et al. Virtual reality exposure therapy for the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder following September 11, 2001. J Clin Psychiatry. 2007;68:1639-47. (PMID: 18052556)
24. 3Institute of Medicine. Treatment of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Assessment of the Evidence. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press; 2008. [Full Text]
25. 3Ballenger JC, Davidson JR, Lecrubier Y, Nutt DJ, Foa EB, Kessler RC, et al. Consensus statement on posttraumatic stress disorder from the International Consensus Group on Depression and Anxiety. J Clin Psychiatry. 2000;61 Suppl 5:60-6. (PMID: 10761680)
26. 1Davidson JR. Pharmacotherapy of posttraumatic stress disorder: treatment options, long-term follow-up, and predictors of outcome. J Clin Psychiatry. 2000;61 Suppl 5:52-6; discussion 57-9. (PMID: 10761679)
27. 1Davidson JR, Rothbaum BO, van der Kolk BA, Sikes CR, Farfel GM. Multicenter, double-blind comparison of sertraline and placebo in the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2001;58:485-92. (PMID: 11343529)
28. 1Pearlstein T. Antidepressant treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 2000;61 Suppl 7:40-3. (PMID: 10795608)
29. 1Hidalgo RB, Davidson JR. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors in post-traumatic stress disorder. J Psychopharmacol. 2000;14:70-6. (PMID: 10757257)
30. 2Marshall RD, Schneier FR, Fallon BA, Knight CB, Abbate LA, Goetz D, et al. An open trial of paroxetine in patients with noncombat-related, chronic posttraumatic stress disorder. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 1998;18:10-8. (PMID: 9472837)
31. 1van der Kolk BA, Dreyfuss D, Michaels M, Shera D, Berkowitz R, Fisler R, et al. Fluoxetine in posttraumatic stress disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 1994;55:517-22. (PMID: 7814344)
32. 1Marshall RD, Beebe KL, Oldham M, Zaninelli R. Efficacy and safety of paroxetine treatment for chronic PTSD: a fixed-dose, placebo-controlled study. Am J Psychiatry. 2001;158:1982-8. (PMID: 11729013)
33. 1Davidson J, Pearlstein T, Londborg P, Brady KT, Rothbaum B, Bell J, et al. Efficacy of sertraline in preventing relapse of posttraumatic stress disorder: results of a 28-week double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Am J Psychiatry. 2001;158:1974-81. (PMID: 11729012)
34. 1Davidson JR, Connor KM, Hertzberg MA, Weisler RH, Wilson WH, Payne VM. Maintenance therapy with fluoxetine in posttraumatic stress disorder: a placebo-controlled discontinuation study. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2005;25:166-9. (PMID: 15738748)
35. 2Hidalgo R, Hertzberg MA, Mellman T, Petty F, Tucker P, Weisler R, et al. Nefazodone in post-traumatic stress disorder: results from six open-label trials. Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 1999;14:61-8. (PMID: 10220119)
36. 1Kosten TR, Frank JB, Dan E, McDougle CJ, Giller EL Jr. Pharmacotherapy for posttraumatic stress disorder using phenelzine or imipramine. J Nerv Ment Dis. 1991;179:366-70. (PMID: 2051152)
37. 1Davidson J, Kudler H, Smith R, Mahorney SL, Lipper S, Hammett E, et al. Treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder with amitriptyline and placebo. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1990;47:259-66. (PMID: 2407208)
38. 2Connor KM, Davidson JR, Weisler RH, Ahearn E. A pilot study of mirtazapine in post-traumatic stress disorder. Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 1999;14:29-31. (PMID: 10221639)
39. 1Meltzer-Brody S, Churchill E, Davidson JR. Derivation of the SPAN, a brief diagnostic screening test for post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychiatry Res. 1999;88:63-70. (PMID: 10641587)
40. 2Taylor FB, Lowe K, Thompson C, McFall MM, Peskind ER, Kanter ED, et al. Daytime prazosin reduces psychological distress to trauma specific cues in civilian trauma posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 2006;59:577-81. (PMID: 16460691)
41. 2Raskind MA, Thompson C, Petrie EC, Dobie DJ, Rein RJ, Hoff DJ, et al. Prazosin reduces nightmares in combat veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 2002;63:565-8. (PMID: 12143911)
42. 1Braun P, Greenberg D, Dasberg H, Lerer B. Core symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder unimproved by alprazolam treatment. J Clin Psychiatry. 1990;51:236-8. (PMID: 2189869)
43. 2Kosten TR, Fontana A, Sernyak MJ, Rosenheck R. Benzodiazepine use in posttraumatic stress disorder among veterans with substance abuse. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2000;188:454-9. (PMID: 10919705)
44. 1Malik ML, Connor KM, Sutherland SM, Smith RD, Davison RM, Davidson JR. Quality of life and posttraumatic stress disorder: a pilot study assessing changes in SF-36 scores before and after treatment in a placebo-controlled trial of fluoxetine. J Trauma Stress. 1999;12:387-93. (PMID: 10378176)
45. 1Blanchard EB, Jones-Alexander J, Buckley TC, Forneris CA. Psychometric properties of the PTSD Checklist (PCL). Behav Res Ther. 1996;34:669-73. (PMID: 8870294)
46. 1Bryant RA, Moulds ML, Guthrie RM. Acute Stress Disorder Scale: a self-report measure of acute stress disorder. Psychol Assess. 2000;12:61-8. (PMID: 10752364)
47. 2Galea S, Ahern J, Resnick H, Kilpatrick D, Bucuvalas M, Gold J, et al. Psychological sequelae of the September 11 terrorist attacks in New York City. N Engl J Med. 2002;346:982-7. (PMID: 11919308)
New References of Interest
48. Holbrook TL, Galarneau MR, Dye JL, Quinn K, Dougherty AL. Morphine use after combat injury in Iraq and post-traumatic stress disorder. N Engl J Med. 2010;362:110-7. (PMID: 20071700)
49. Brackbill RM, Hadler JL, DiGrande L, Ekenga CC, Farfel MR, Friedman S, et al. Asthma and posttraumatic stress symptoms 5 to 6 years following exposure to the World Trade Center terrorist attack. JAMA. 2009;302:502-16. (PMID: 19654385)
FAQs
Jeffrey P. Staab, MD, MS, is a consultant for Eli Lilly, Forest Laboratories, received honorarium from Abbott Laboratories, received grants from GlaxoSmithKline, Pfizer. Michael Roy, MD, editorial consultant, received honorarium from PFizer.
Darren B. Taichman, MD, PhD, Editor, PIER, has received grant support from Actelion Pharmaceuticals Ltd , and honoraria for continuing medical education grand rounds and lectures given.

The information included herein should never be used as a substitute for clinical judgment and does not represent an official position of ACP. Because all PIER modules are updated regularly, printed web pages or PDFs may rapidly become obsolete. Therefore, PIER users should compare the date of the last update on the website with any printout to ensure that the information being referred to is the most current available.
PIER is copyrighted (c) 2010 by the American College of Physicians,
190 N. Independence Mall West, Philadelphia, PA 19106-1572, USA.