Anthrax Author: Sandro Cinti, MD; Barbara Robinson-Dunn, PhD; Niklas Mackler, MD
Editorial changes - 2007-10-03
Author information and module status
Prevention
Screening
Diagnosis
Consultation for Diagnosis
Hospitalization
Non-drug Therapy
Drug Therapy
Patient Education
Consultation for Management
Follow-up
Tables
Figures
References
Glossary
What's New
Patient Information
Additional Resources
Tools
References
1. 2Brachman PS. Field evaluation of human anthrax vaccine. Am J Public Health. 1962;52:632-45.
2. 2Tresselt HB. An antigen prepared in vitro effective for immunization against anthrax. III. Immunization of monkeys against anthrax. J Infect Dis. 1954;96:207-302.
3. 2Turnbull PC, Broster MG, Carman JA, Manchee RJ, Melling J. Development of antibodies to protective antigen and lethal factor components of anthrax toxin in humans and guinea pigs and their relevance to protective immunity. Infect Immun. 1986;52:356-63. (PMID: 3084381)
4. 2Little SF, Knudson GB. Comparative efficacy of Bacillus anthracis live spore vaccine and protective antigen vaccine against anthrax in the guinea pig. Infect Immun. 1986;52:509-12. (PMID: 3084385)
5. 3Grabenstein JD. Anthrax vaccine: a review. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am. 2003;23:713-30. (PMID: 14753388)
6. 3Gilson RT, Schissel DJ. Recurrent, localized urticaria and erythema multiforme: a review and management of cutaneous anthrax vaccine-related events. Cutis. 2004;73:319-25. (PMID: 15186046)
7. 3Turnbull PC. Anthrax vaccines: past, present and future. Vaccine. 1991;9:533-9. (PMID: 1771966)
8. 3Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices. Use of anthrax vaccine in the United States. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2000;49:1-20. (PMID: 11145529)
9. 3Pittman PR, Gibbs PH, Cannon TL, Friedlander AM. Anthrax vaccine: short-term safety experience in humans. Vaccine. 2001;20:972-8. (PMID: 11738765)
10. 2Wiesen AR, Littell CT. Relationship between prepregnancy anthrax vaccination and pregnancy and birth outcomes among US Army women. JAMA. 2002;287:1556-60. (PMID: 11911758)
11. 3Sever JL, Brenner AI, Gale AD, Lyle JM, Moulton LH, Ward BJ, et al. Safety of anthrax vaccine: an expanded review and evaluation of adverse events reported to the Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System (VAERS). Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf. 2004;13:825-40. (PMID: 15386719)
12. 2Sulsky SI, Grabenstein JD, Delbos RG. Disability among U.S. Army personnel vaccinated against anthrax. J Occup Environ Med. 2004;46:1065-75. (PMID: 15602181)
13. 1Friedlander AM, Welkos SL, Pitt ML, Ezzell JW, Worsham PL, Rose KJ, et al. Postexposure prophylaxis against experimental inhalation anthrax. J Infect Dis. 1993;167:1239-43. (PMID: 8486963)
14. 2Vietri NJ, Purcell BK, Lawler JV, Leffel EK, Rico P, Gamble CS, et al. Short-course postexposure antibiotic prophylaxis combined with vaccination protects against experimental inhalational anthrax. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2006;103:7813-6. (PMID: 16672361)
15. 2Williams JL, Noviello SS, Griffith KS, Wurtzel H, Hamborsky J, Perz JF, et al. Anthrax postexposure prophylaxis in postal workers, Connecticut, 2001. Emerg Infect Dis. 2002;8:1133-7. (PMID: 12396928)
16. 3Stepanov AV, Marinin LI, Pomerantsev AP, Staritsin NA. Development of novel vaccines against anthrax in man. J Biotechnol. 1996;44:155-60. (PMID: 8717399)
17. 3Henderson DW, Peacock S, Belton FC. Observations on the prophylaxis of experimental pulmonary anthrax in the monkey. J Hyg (Lond). 1956;54:28-36. (PMID: 13319688)
18. 2Meselson M, Guillemin J, Hugh-Jones M, Langmuir A, Popova I, Shelokov A, et al. The Sverdlovsk anthrax outbreak of 1979. Science. 1994;266:1202-8. (PMID: 7973702)
19. 2Shepard CW, Soriano-Gabarro M, Zell ER, Hayslett J, Lukacs S, Goldstein S, et al. Antimicrobial postexposure prophylaxis for anthrax: adverse events and adherence. Emerg Infect Dis. 2002;8:1124-32. (PMID: 12396927)
20. 2Fowler RA, Sanders GD, Bravata DM, Nouri B, Gastwirth JM, Peterson D, et al. Cost-effectiveness of defending against bioterrorism: a comparison of vaccination and antibiotic prophylaxis against anthrax. Ann Intern Med. 2005;142:601-10. (PMID: 15838066) [Full Text]
21. 1Bhatt KM, Bhatt SM. Anthrax revisited. East Afr Med J. 2002;79:364-7. (PMID: 12638831)
22. 1Sidel V, Cohen HW, Gould RM. From woolsorters to mail sorters: anthrax past, present, and future [Editorial]. Am J Public Health. 2002;92:705-6. (PMID: 11988429)
23. 2Dewan PK, Fry AM, Laserson K, Tierney BC, Quinn CP, Hayslett JA, et al. Inhalational anthrax outbreak among postal workers, Washington, D.C., 2001. Emerg Infect Dis. 2002;8:1066-72. (PMID: 12396917)
24. 1Inglesby TV, O'Toole T, Henderson DA, Bartlett JG, Ascher MS, Eitzen E, et al. Anthrax as a biological weapon, 2002: updated recommendations for management. JAMA. 2002;287:2236-52. (PMID: 11980524)
25. 3Christie AB. The clinical aspects of anthrax. Postgrad Med J. 1973;49:5665-70. (PMID: 4799413)
26. 3Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Update: Investigation of bioterrorism-related anthrax and interim guidelines for clinical evaluation of persons with possible anthrax. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2001;50:941-8. Erratum in: MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2001;50):991. (PMID: 11708591)
27. 3Freedman A, Afonja O, Chang MW, Mostashari F, Blaser M, Perez-Perez G, et al. Cutaneous anthrax associated with microangiopathic hemolytic anemia and coagulopathy in a 7-month-old infant. JAMA. 2002;287:869-74. (PMID: 11851579)
28. 2Jernigan JA, Stephens DS, Ashford DA, Omenaca C, Topiel MS, Galbraith M, et al. Bioterrorism-related inhalational anthrax: the first 10 cases reported in the United States. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001;7:933-44. (PMID: 11747719)
29. 2Grinberg LM, Abramova FA, Yampolskaya OV, Walker DH, Smith JH. Quantitative pathology of inhalational anthrax I: quantitative microscopic findings. Mod Pathol. 2001;14:482-95. (PMID: 11353060)
30. 2Kyriacou DN, Stein AC, Yarnold PR, Courtney DM, Nelson RR, Noskin GA, et al. Clinical predictors of bioterrorism-related inhalational anthrax. Lancet. 2004;364:449-52. (PMID: 15288744)
31. 2Dutz W, Saidi F, Kohout E. Gastric anthrax with massive ascites. Gut. 1970;11:352-4. (PMID: 5428857)
32. 3Binkley CE, Cinti S, Simeone DM, Colletti LM. Bacillus anthracis as an agent of bioterrorism: a review emphasizing surgical treatment. Ann Surg. 2002;236:9-16. (PMID: 12131080)
33. 2Abramova FA, Grinberg LM, Yampolskaya OV, Walker DH. Pathology of inhalational anthrax in 42 cases from the Sverdlovsk outbreak of 1979. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1993;90:2291-4. (PMID: 8460135)
34. 2Jernigan DB, Raghunathan PL, Bell BP, Brechner R, Bresnitz EA, Butler JC, et al. Investigation of bioterrorism-related anthrax, United States, 2001: epidemiologic findings. Emerg Infect Dis. 2002;8:1019-28. (PMID: 12396909)
35. 3Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Recognition of illness associated with the intentional release of a biologic agent. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2001;50:893-7. (PMID: 11686473)
36. 2Rantakokko-Jalava K, Viljanen MK. Application of Bacillus anthracis PCR to simulated clinical samples. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2003;9:1051-6. (PMID: 14616752)
37. 3Barakat LA, Quentzel HL, Jernigan JA, Kirschke DL, Griffith K, Spear SM, et al. Fatal inhalational anthrax in a 94-year-old Connecticut woman. JAMA. 2002;287:863-8. (PMID: 11851578)
38. 2Kyriacou DN, Yarnold PR, Stein AC, Schmitt BP, Soltysik RC, Nelson RR, et al. Discriminating inhalational anthrax from community-acquired pneumonia using chest radiograph findings and a clinical algorithm. Chest. 2007;131:489-96. (PMID: 17296652)
39. 3Bell DM, Kozarsky PE, Stephens DS. Clinical issues in the prophylaxis, diagnosis, and treatment of anthrax. Emerg Infect Dis. 2002;8:222-5. (PMID: 11897081)
40. 2De BK, Bragg SL, Sanden GN, Wilson KE, Diem LA, Marston CK, et al. A two-component direct fluorescent-antibody assay for rapid identification of Bacillus anthracis. Emerg Infect Dis. 2002;8:1060-5. (PMID: 12396916)
41. 2Hoffmaster AR, Meyer RF, Bowen MD, Marston CK, Weyant RS, Thurman K, et al. Evaluation and validation of a real-time polymerase chain reaction assay for rapid identification of Bacillus anthracis [Letter]. Emerg Infect Dis. 2002;8:1178-82. (PMID: 12396935)
42. 2Quinn CP, Semenova VA, Elie CM, Romero-Steiner S, Greene C, Li H, et al. Specific, sensitive, and quantitative enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for human immunoglobulin G antibodies to anthrax toxin protective antigen. Emerg Infect Dis. 2002;8:1103-10. (PMID: 12396924)
43. 3Williams R. Bacillus anthracis and other spore forming bacilli. In: Braude AI, ed. Infectious Disease and Microbiology. Philadelphia: WB Saunders Co; 1986:270-78.
44. 2Oncül O, Ozsoy MF, Gul HC, Koçak N, Cavuslu S, Pahsa A. Cutaneous anthrax in Turkey: a review of 32 cases. Scand J Infect Dis. 2002;34:413-6. (PMID: 12160166)
45. 3Carucci JA, McGovern TW, Norton SA, Daniel CR, Elewski BE, Fallon-Friedlander S, et al. Cutaneous anthrax management algorithm. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2001. (PMID: 11893970)
46. 2Kanafani ZA, Ghossain A, Sharara AI, Hatem JM, Kanj SS. Endemic gastrointestinal anthrax in 1960s Lebanon: clinical manifestations and surgical findings. Emerg Infect Dis. 2003;9:520-5. (PMID: 12737733)
47. 3Lew DP. Bacillus anthracis (Anthrax). In: Mandell GL, Bennett JE, Dolin R, eds. Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases, 5th ed. Philadelphia: Churchill Livingstone;2000:2215-20.
48. 3Dixon TC, Meselson M, Guillemin J, Hanna PC. Anthrax. N Engl J Med. 1999;341:815-26. (PMID: 10477781)
49. 3Gerberding JL, Hughes JM, Koplan JP. Bioterrorism preparedness and response: clinicians and public health agencies as essential partners [Editorial]. JAMA. 2002;287:898-900. (PMID: 11851584)
50. 2Stevens DL, Gibbons AE, Bergstrom R, Winn V. The Eagle effect revisited: efficacy of clindamycin, erythromycin, and penicillin in the treatment of streptococcal myositis. J Infect Dis. 1988;158:23-8. (PMID: 3292661)
51. 2Choe CH, Bouhaouala SS, Brook I, Elliot TB, Knudson GB. In vitro development of resistance to ofloxacin and doxycycline in Bacillus anthracis Sterne [Letter]. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2000;44:1766. (PMID: 10896651)
52. 3Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Update: Investigation of bioterrorism-related anthrax and interim guidelines for exposure management and antimicrobial therapy, October 2001. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2001;50:909-19. Erratum in: MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2001;50:962. (PMID: 11699843)
53. 2Kournikakis B. Risk assessment of anthrax threat letters. Defence Research Establishment Suffield. September 2001. Available at: http://www.dres.dnd.ca/Meetings/FirstResponders/tr01-048_annex.pdf.
54. 2Zhanel GG, Ennis K, Vercaigne L, Walkty A, Gin AS, Embil J, et al. A critical review of the fluoroquinolones: focus on respiratory infections. Drugs. 2002;62:13-59. (PMID: 11790155)
55. 2Riond JL, Riviere JE. Pharmacology and toxicology of doxycycline. Vet Hum Toxicol. 1988;30:431-43. (PMID: 3055652)
56. 2Bush LM, Abrams BH, Beall A, Johnson CC. Index case of fatal inhalational anthrax due to bioterrorism in the United States. N Engl J Med. 2001;345:1607-10. (PMID: 11704685)
57. 3Inglesby TV, Henderson DA, Bartlett JG, Ascher MS, Eitzen E, Friedlander AM, et al. Anthrax as a biological weapon: medical and public health management. Working Group on Civilian Biodefense. JAMA. 1999;281:1735-45. (PMID: 10328075)
58. 3Chin J. Anthrax. Control of Communicable Diseases Manual. Washington, DC: APHA; 2000:20-5.
FAQs
Barbara Robinson-Dunn, PhD has no financial relationships with pharmaceutical companies, biomedical device manufacturers, or health-care related organizations. Demetrios N. Kyriacou, MD, PhD, editorial consultant, has no financial relationships with pharmaceutical companies, biomedical device manufacturers, or health-care related organizations. Niklas Mackler, MD has no financial relationships with pharmaceutical companies, biomedical device manufacturers, or health-care related organizations. Sandro Cinti, MD has no financial relationships with pharmaceutical companies, biomedical device manufacturers, or health-care related organizations.

The information included herein should never be used as a substitute for clinical judgment and does not represent an official position of ACP. Because all PIER modules are updated regularly, printed web pages or PDFs may rapidly become obsolete. Therefore, PIER users should compare the date of the last update on the website with any printout to ensure that the information being referred to is the most current available.
PIER is copyrighted (c) 2008 by the American College of Physicians,
190 N. Independence Mall West, Philadelphia, PA 19106-1572, USA.