West Nile Virus Disease Author: Amy V. Bode, MD, MSPH; James J. Sejvar, MD; Anthony A. Marfin, MD, MPH
Editorial changes - 2008-02-22
Author information and module status
Prevention
Screening
Diagnosis
Consultation for Diagnosis
Hospitalization
Non-drug Therapy
Drug Therapy
Patient Education
Consultation for Management
Follow-up
Tables
References
Glossary
What's New
Patient Information
Additional Resources
Tools
References
1. 3Petersen LR, Marfin AA. West Nile virus: a primer for the clinician. Ann Intern Med. 2002;137:173-9. (PMID: 12160365) [Full Text]
2. 2Han LL, Popovici F, Alexander JP Jr, Laurentia V, Tengelsen LA, Cernescu C, et al. Risk factors for West Nile virus infection and meningoencephalitis, Romania, 1996. J Infect Dis. 1999;179:230-3. (PMID: 9841844)
3. 2Monath TP. Epidemiology. In: Monath TP, ed. St. Louis Encephalitis. Washington, DC: American Public Health Association; 1980:239-312.
4. 2Mostashari F, Bunning ML, Kitsutani PT, Singer DA, Nash D, Cooper MJ, et al. Epidemic West Nile encephalitis, New York, 1999: results of a household-based seroepidemiological survey. Lancet. 2001;358:261-4. (PMID: 11498211)
5. 2Fradin MS, Day JF. Comparative efficacy of insect repellents against mosquito bites. N Engl J Med. 2002;347:13-8. (PMID: 12097535)
6. 3Campbell GL, Marfin AA, Lanciotti RS, Gubler DJ. West Nile virus. Lancet Infect Dis. 2002;2:519-29. (PMID: 12206968)
7. 2Investigations of West Nile virus infections in recipients of blood transfusions. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2002;51:973-4. (PMID: 12433022)
8. 2Iwamoto M, Jernigan DB, Guasch A, Trepka MJ, Blackmore CG, Hellinger WC, et al. Transmission of West Nile virus from an organ donor to four transplant recipients. N Engl J Med. 2003;348:2196-203. (PMID: 12773646)
9. 3West Nile virus infections in organ transplant recipients—New York and Pennsylvania, August-September, 2005. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2005;54:1021-3. (PMID: 16224451)
10. 3Food and Drug Administration. Guidance for Industry: Revised Recommendations for the Assessment of Donor Suitability and Blood and Blood Product Safety in Cases of Known or Suspected West Nile Virus Infection. Available at: http://www.fda.gov/cber/gdlns/wnvguid.htm. Accessed 1 May 2003.
11. 1McGready R, Hamilton KA, Simpson JA, Cho T, Luxemburger C, Edwards R, et al. Safety of the insect repellent N,N-diethyl-M-toluamide (DEET) in pregnancy. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2001;65:285-9. (PMID: 11693870)
12. 3Koren G, Matsui D, Bailey B. DEET-based insect repellents: safety implications for children and pregnant and lactating women. CMAJ. 2003;169:209-12. (PMID: 12900480)
13. 3Fradin MS. Mosquitoes and mosquito repellents: a clinician's guide. Ann Intern Med. 1998;128:931-40. (PMID: 9634433) [Full Text]
14. 2Possible West Nile virus transmission to an infant through breast-feeding—Michigan, 2002. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2002;51:877-8. (PMID: 12375687)
15. 2Intrauterine West Nile virus infection—New York, 2002. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2002;51:1135-6. (PMID: 12537289)
16. 2O'Leary DR, Kuhn S, Kniss KL, Hinckley AF, Rasmussen SA, Pape WJ, et al. Birth outcomes following West Nile Virus infection of pregnant women in the United States: 2003-2004. Pediatrics. 2006;117:e537-45. (PMID: 16510632)
17. 2Laboratory-acquired West Nile virus infections—United States, 2002. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2002;51:1133-5. (PMID: 12537288)
18. Pealer LN, Marfin AA, Petersen LR, Lanciotti RS, Page PL, Stramer SL, et al. Transmission of West Nile virus through blood transfusion in the United States in 2002. N Engl J Med. 2003;349:1236-45. (PMID: 14500806)
19. 3Petersen LR, Epstein JS. Problem solved? West Nile virus and transfusion safety [Editorial]. N Engl J Med. 2005;353:516-7. (PMID: 16079376)
20. 3Transfusion-associated transmission of West Nile virus—Arizona, 2004. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2004;53:842-4. (PMID: 15371966)
21. 3Kiberd BA, Forward K. Screening for West Nile virus in organ transplantation: a medical decision analysis. Am J Transplant. 2004;4:1296-301. (PMID: 15268731)
22. 3Watson JT, Jones RC, Gibbs K, Paul W. Dead crow reports and location of human West Nile virus cases, Chicago, 2002. Emerg Infect Dis. 2004;10:938-40. (PMID: 15200837)
23. 2Tsai TF, Popovici F, Cernescu C, Campbell GL, Nedelcu NI. West Nile encephalitis epidemic in southeastern Romania. Lancet. 1998;352:767-71. (PMID: 9737281)
24. 2Chowers MY, Lang R, Nassar F, Ben-David D, Giladi M, Rubinshtein E, et al. Clinical characteristics of the West Nile fever outbreak, Israel, 2000. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001;7:675-8. (PMID: 11585531)
25. 3O'Leary DR, Marfin AA, Montgomery SP, Kipp AM, Lehman JA, Biggerstaff BJ, et al. The epidemic of West Nile virus in the United States, 2002. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis. 2004;4:61-70. (PMID: 15018774)
26. 2Nash D, Mostashari F, Fine A, Miller J, O'Leary D, Murray K, et al. The outbreak of West Nile virus infection in the New York City area in 1999. N Engl J Med. 2001;344:1807-14. (PMID: 11407341)
27. 2Kumar D, Drebot MA, Wong SJ, Lim G, Artsob H, Buck P, et al. A seroprevalence study of west nile virus infection in solid organ transplant recipients. Am J Transplant. 2004;4:1883-8. (PMID: 15476490)
28. 3Kumar D, Prasad GV, Zaltzman J, Levy GA, Humar A. Community-acquired West Nile virus infection in solid-organ transplant recipients. Transplantation. 2004;77:399-402. (PMID: 14966414)
29. 2Pepperell C, Rau N, Krajden S, Kern R, Humar A, Mederski B, et al. West Nile virus infection in 2002: morbidity and mortality among patients admitted to hospital in southcentral Ontario. CMAJ. 2003;168:1399-405. (PMID: 12771068)
30. 2Sejvar JJ, Haddad MB, Tierney BC, Campbell GL, Marfin AA, Van Gerpen JA, et al. Neurologic manifestations and outcome of West Nile virus infection. JAMA. 2003;290:511-5. (PMID: 12876094)
31. 3Roehrig JT, Layton M, Smith P, Campbell GL, Nasci R, Lanciotti RS. The emergence of West Nile virus in North America: ecology, epidemiology, and surveillance. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol. 2002;267:223-40. (PMID: 12082991)
32. 2Weiss D, Carr D, Kellachan J, Tan C, Phillips M, Bresnitz E, et al. Clinical findings of West Nile virus infection in hospitalized patients, New York and New Jersey, 2000. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001;7:654-8. (PMID: 11589170)
33. 2Ceausu E, Erscoiu S, Calistru P, Ispas D, Dorobat O, Homos M, et al. Clinical manifestations in the West Nile virus outbreak. Rom J Virol. 1997;48:3-11. (PMID: 9836323)
34. 3Martin DA, Muth DA, Brown T, Johnson AJ, Karabatsos N, Roehrig JT. Standardization of immunoglobulin M capture enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays for routine diagnosis of arboviral infections. J Clin Microbiol. 2000;38:1823-6. (PMID: 10790107)
35. 2Tilley PA, Fox JD, Jayaraman GC, Preiksaitis JK. Nucleic acid testing for west nile virus RNA in plasma enhances rapid diagnosis of acute infection in symptomatic patients. J Infect Dis. 2006;193:1361-4. (PMID: 16619182)
36. 2Sejvar JJ, Leis AA, Stokic DS, Van Gerpen JA, Marfin AA, Webb R, et al. Acute flaccid paralysis and West Nile virus infection. Emerg Infect Dis. 2003;9:788-93. (PMID: 12890318)
37. 2Martin DA, Biggerstaff BJ, Allen B, Johnson AJ, Lanciotti RS, Roehrig JT. Use of immunoglobulin m cross-reactions in differential diagnosis of human flaviviral encephalitis infections in the United States. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol. 2002;9:544-9. (PMID: 11986257)
38. 2New York City Department of Health. West Nile surveillance and control: an update for healthcare providers in New York City. City Health Information. 2001;20(2).
39. 2Lanciotti RS, Kerst AJ, Nasci RS, Godsey MS, Mitchell CJ, Savage HM, et al. Rapid detection of west nile virus from human clinical specimens, field-collected mosquitoes, and avian samples by a TaqMan reverse transcriptase-PCR assay. J Clin Microbiol. 2000;38:4066-71. (PMID: 11060069)
40. 2Hirsch MS, Werner B. Case records of the Massachusetts General Hospital. Weekly clinicopathological exercises. Case 17-2003. A 38-year-old woman with fever, headache, and confusion. N Engl J Med. 2003;348:2239-47. (PMID: 12773652)
41. 3Sejvar JJ, Bode AV, Marfin AA, Campbell GL, Ewing D, Mazowiecki M, et al. West Nile virus-associated flaccid paralysis. Emerg Infect Dis. 2005;11:1021-7. (PMID: 16022775)
42. 1Skoldenberg B, Forsgren M, Alestig K, Bergstrom T, Burman L, Dahlqvist E, et al. Acyclovir versus vidarabine in herpes simplex encephalitis. Randomised multicentre study in consecutive Swedish patients. Lancet. 1984;2:707-11. (PMID: 6148470)
43. 1Whitley RJ, Alford CA, Hirsch MS, Schooley RT, Luby JP, Aoki FY, et al. Vidarabine versus acyclovir therapy in herpes simplex encephalitis. N Engl J Med. 1986;314:144-9. (PMID: 3001520)
44. 3Rathi AK, Kushwaha KP, Singh YD, Singh J, Sirohi R, Singh RK, et al. JE virus encephalitis: 1988 epidemic at Gorakhpur. Indian Pediatr. 1993;30:325-33. (PMID: 8396069)
45. 3Agrawal AG, Petersen LR. Human immunoglobulin as a treatment for West Nile virus infection [Editorial]. J Infect Dis. 2003;188:1-4. (PMID: 12825164)
46. 3Petersen LR, Marfin AA, Gubler DJ. West Nile virus. JAMA. 2003;290:524-8. (PMID: 12876096)
New References of Interest
47. Gould EA, Solomon T. Pathogenic flaviviruses. Lancet. 2008;371:500-9. (PMID: 18262042)
FAQs
Amy V. Bode, MD, MSPH has no financial relationships with pharmaceutical companies, biomedical device manufacturers, or health-care related organizations. Anthony A. Marfin, MD, MPH has no financial relationships with pharmaceutical companies, biomedical device manufacturers, or health-care related organizations. Carrie Nielsen, PhD, editorial consultant, has no financial relationships with pharmaceutical companies, biomedical device manufacturers, or health-care related organizations. James J. Sejvar, MD has no financial relationships with pharmaceutical companies, biomedical device manufacturers, or health-care related organizations.

The information included herein should never be used as a substitute for clinical judgment and does not represent an official position of ACP. Because all PIER modules are updated regularly, printed web pages or PDFs may rapidly become obsolete. Therefore, PIER users should compare the date of the last update on the website with any printout to ensure that the information being referred to is the most current available.
PIER is copyrighted (c) 2008 by the American College of Physicians,
190 N. Independence Mall West, Philadelphia, PA 19106-1572, USA.